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Wildlife Research and Three Rs
For CCAC purposes, the term "wildlife" refers to free ranging and captive wild vertebrates, including
amphibians, reptiles, birds, fish and mammals. This includes all introduced and indigenous species,
as well as domestic animals that have become feral. Many types of research involve the use of wildlife,
including studies of populations, behaviour, and ecosystems. In these types of studies, it may be
difficult to apply the Three Rs, especially when the goals of the research value the needs of whole
ecosystems over the welfare of individual animals. These situations place the ethics of animal use
outside of conventional "experimental use" and traditional application of the Three Rs.
Therefore, to balance the needs of wildlife research and wild animals, the CCAC recommends that
investigators use the following definitions to guide their implementation of Three Rs in
wildlife research:
Replacement - Animals may be used only if the investigator's best efforts to find
a replacement by which to obtain the required information have failed.
Reduction - The fewest animals appropriate to provide valid information and
statistical significance should be used.
Refinement - The most humane, least invasive techniques must be used with the goal
of minimizing pain and/or distress.
The animal's physical and psychological well-being should always take precedence over considerations
of cost and convenience.
(This section has been adapted from Section B.3. Ethics on the Use of Wildlife of the CCAC
guidelines on: the care and use of wildlife)
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Animal welfare and wildlife research
Experimental procedures involving wild animals are of special animal welfare concern for the
following reasons:
- There is a general lack of peer-reviewed research on the welfare implications of field
studies, for example quantifying the stress of capture and handling, the effects of
telemetry devices, and recovery from surgical procedures.
- There is limited knowledge of welfare indicators for many wildlife species.
- There are difficulties associated with assessing the welfare of wild animals in the
field due to lack of access to the animals, and because many species are adapted to
conceal signs of suffering or poor health.
- Lack of conditioning to human handling results in a high degree of stress in
captured wild animals.
- Animals may be injured during capture or handling.
- Experimental procedures may require the transportation and/or holding of wild animals
in highly confined enclosures.
- Sample collection and tagging may involve invasive procedures.
- Lack of use of analgesics can result in inadequate pain relief and peri-operative care.
- Assistance from veterinarians is not as readily available as it is in many laboratories.
- Non-study species may inadvertently be captured, injured, or otherwise affected by the
experimental procedures.
- Population sampling may involve the killing of animals.
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Three Rs strategies in wildlife research
Any negative impacts on animal welfare from wildlife research may be decreased by thorough
consideration of the Three Rs when developing experimental protocols. To assist in the
implementation and promotion of the Three Rs, investigators conducting wildlife
research should:
- ensure that all individuals involved in the research undertake formal training in the
concept and implementation of the Three Rs (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement);
- ensure that all individuals involved with capture, handling, sampling, identification,
maintenance, monitoring, and/or euthanasia of animals are appropriately trained in
experimental procedures (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement);
- collaborate in the development and dissemination of training courses, guidelines and protocols
for various species and types of wildlife research (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement);
- design studies so that specimens are used for multiple purposes or so they can be combined
with samples from additional field seasons to maximize their use - this also includes the
collection of biological and genetic samples for archiving whenever possible (Reduction)
- share data and resources (e.g., biological and genetic samples) and publish all results,
preferably in free access journals (Reduction);
- conduct statistical evaluation of sample size prior to conducting the research, even when
sources of variation can only be roughly estimated (Reduction);
- use species/gender/age-specific experimental designs (e.g., use species-specific baits,
or trap at specific times or locations) to minimize capture of non-target animals
(Reduction);
- assess potential sources of harm to study and non-study species and how these will
be eliminated or minimized (Refinement).
- conduct a retrospective analysis of all wildlife research studies where animal
welfare was an issue (for example, with unacceptable mortality) to avoid repetition
of these events (Refinement);
- use analgesics to control pain in invasive procedures (for example, laparotomy, biopsy
and tooth extraction) (Refinement);
- decrease the frequency and duration of human observation - consider using remote video
surveillance (Refinement);
- If possible, use non-invasive samples, such as hair, saliva or faeces, in place of
blood or plasma (Refinement);
- minimize the capture of non-target animals, but be prepared to deal with them - in
particular, plans for handling non-target species should include mechanisms to deal
with unplanned captures and accidental killing (Refinement);
- minimize disturbances that can lead to abandonment of territories or home ranges,
pre-emption of feeding, disruption of social structures, and alteration of
predator-prey relationships (Refinement);
- use the least amount of restraint and the shortest possible time necessary for
the procedures being undertaken (Refinement);
- collaborate with industry to produce research equipment that is less disruptive
to the animals' normal way of life (Refinement); and
- describe the use of refinement techniques in any peer-reviewed publications
arising from the research (Refinement).
(This section has been adapted from CCAC guidelines and the International Consensus Meeting on the Harmonisation and Use of Animals in Field Research held at Gardermoen, Norway in May 2008).
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For more information on wildlife research and the Three Rs, the following resources may be useful:
CCAC resources
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Online resources
Other publications
- Cattet M., Boulanger J., Stenhouse G., Powell R.A., & Reynolds-Hogland M.J. (2008). An evaluation of long-term capture effects in ursids: implications for wildlife welfare and research. Journal of Mammalogy 89:973-990.
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