V. LABORATORY ANIMAL
CARE
A. INTRODUCTION
a) Animal Care and Handling
All animal facilities should have in place Standard
Operating Procedures (SOP) for animal care. Assistance in this regard may be
found in a manual and computer program developed by Olson, Morck, and Nabrotzky
(1992).
All animals must be observed at least once daily.
Animals may have to be handled when being put
into new cages or removed for various experimental purposes. Most domestic and
laboratory animals need no restraint for such routine handling, and will respond
to gentleness. Under normal conditions, all standard laboratory animals, except
non-human primates (NHP), can be handled without the use of gloves or other
restraining aids. In all cases, only the minimal amount of force necessary should
be employed. Manipulation of the type and intensity of light used often proves
useful in handling small wild mammals and birds (Fall, 1974).
Successful handling requires the ability to recognize
the animal's state of mind, which may include bewilderment, apprehension and,
in some cases, discomfort or pain. Proper training is important to provide consistency
in handling which usually results in more manageable animals.
Whenever possible, the use of cumbersome protective
garments, such as gloves, should be avoided, as they often prevent the handler
from developing the proper sense of touch and cause the animal discomfort. However,
with wild and semi-domesticated species (mink, monkeys, etc.) use of protective
gauntlets and restraining equipment is usually necessary. The use of specialized
cage squeeze mechanisms followed by tranquillization is often advocated for
handling the larger NHP. Transfer devices, pole tether devices and training
through reward may be used to effect routine cage changes. Transfer devices
have also been designed and utilized for a variety of small wild rodent species
(Caudill and Gaddis, 1973).
The handling of individual species is addressed
in Volume 2 of the Guide. In addition, Agriculture Canada has published
Codes of Practice for handling many species of farm animals (Agriculture Canada,
1771/E, 1984; 1821/E, 1988; 1757/E, 1989; 1853/E, 1990; 1870/E, 1991). In addition,
a revision of the Recommended Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of
Farm Animals--Pigs (1898/E) is now in press.
B. GENERAL PRACTICES
1. Reception
The portal through which animals and containers
enter a facility is important in the overall prevention of disease. The examination
of newly arrived animals should have several aims: evaluating the condition
and health of the animals; preventing cross-contamination of animals from different
sources; and ensuring that the order has been accurately filled. The health
status of the animals at their source and the possibility of cross-contamination
during transport are important considerations. Cross-contamination is always
a greater risk if the animals are not shipped in a vehicle dedicated to the
transport of animals, coming from a single source. However, this risk can be
decreased by the use of filtered shipping crates.
Each new shipment of animals should be received,
uncrated and examined by trained personnel and placed in clean cages in a designated
reception area separate from the animal holding room(s). The reception area
should be cleaned and disinfected after each new shipment. Shipping containers
should not enter the main facility unless properly decontaminated and should
be properly disposed of, or thoroughly cleaned and disinfected if they are to
be reused. Incoming animals should be identified and their arrival appropriately
recorded.
Animals that appear unhealthy, or which have been
in any way debilitated in transit, should be separated from the remainder and
held in an appropriate location for observation and treatment. Where this is
not feasible, such animals should be euthanized without delay.
2. Conditioning/Quarantine
The level of conditioning required will depend
on the differences in microbial status between the resident animals and the
incoming animals. Rodents are commonly purposebred for the laboratory and can
be received from the supplier in a defined state, with a known health, nutritional
and, to a varying extent, genetic background. Similarly other purposebred species
obtained from reputable sources will have complete health profiles and will
have received specified prophylactic treatment. Such animals may not normally
require further quarantine for confirmation of their health status; however,
a holding period of several days will give the animals the opportunity to adjust
to their new surroundings. A minimum adjustment period of two days is required
after shipping for immune function, corticosterone levels and other physiological
parameters to stabilize (Small, 1984; Toth and January, 1990).
Legally procured strays or donated animals, acquired
feral animals, such as NHP, and animals from other random sources should be
subjected to a period of conditioning following their reception. Conditioning
requires that the animal be held for a varying period of time (1-6 weeks) in
separate quarters. The length of the conditioning period will depend on the
species, the health status of the animals, the reliability of the supplier,
and whether an active process of screening animals for the presence of or exposure
to infectious agents is undertaken. During this period, thorough physical examinations
should be undertaken. Further examination will depend on species and intended
use.
The conditioning period should be of sufficient
duration to permit the proper evaluation of the suitability of the animal(s)
for their intended use, and testing for contagious, zoonotic and other diseases
that may be of concern. This can include serological screening for antibodies
to viruses and other pathogens, the examination for ecto- and endo-parasites,
mycoplasma, and pathogenic bacteria. If contamination during transport is a
possibility, an appropriate period to allow expression of disease or antibody
production should be allowed. Sufficient time must also be allowed for appropriate
treatment or vaccination against diseases that tend to be endemic in the species
being conditioned.
During the conditioning/quarantine period, the
animals should be held in facilities separated from other animals with no crossover
of personnel, equipment, supplies or ventilation (Frost and Hamm Jr., 1990),
unless effective measures are taken to prevent cross-contamination.
3. Holding (Maintenance)
Only one species should be housed in a conventional
animal room unless maintained in isolator caging, racks or cabinets. Shipments
of the same species, acquired from different suppliers, should also be separated
according to health status if space permits, or housed in isolator caging. Where
the mixing of species and/or stocks from different sources is unavoidable, every
effort should be made to place together those that are behaviourally compatible,
have similar environmental requirements, and a low probability of cross-infection.
NHP should not be housed with any other species.
Animals should be held in enclosures adequate
for that species as described in the individual sections of Volume 2 of this
Guide.
4. Identification and Records
Cage or group identification may be used for small
laboratory animals if individual identification is not an experimental prerequisite.
Individual identification can be by ear tagging, ear notching, tattooing, tail
marking, subcutaneous microchip implant or other species appropriate method
(Hayden, 1974; Ball, Argentieri, Krause et al. 1991; Iwaki, Matsuo and
Kast, 1989; Castor and Zaldivar, 1973). Dye marking on the hair provides for
short-term identification. Larger laboratory animals should always be individually
identified by tattoo, neck band, individual tag, or a subcutaneous identity
tag.
The Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC) opposes
the use of toe clipping as a method of identification for the short-term learning
experience of field studies. Where it is necessary to provide permanent individual
identification between litter members of newborn rodents, toe clipping may be
necessary. If, for any reason, this procedure has to be undertaken on other
than neonatal animals, either a local or general anesthetic should be administered
(Stonehouse, 1978).
The importance of keeping complete and thorough
records on all experimental animals cannot be overemphasized. The following
information should be recorded for each animal: arrival date, sex, estimated
age and weight, breed and type, colour and markings and any physical abnormalities
or other identifying features (ILAR, 1984). The name of the project or
investigator and protocol number to which it is allocated should be noted, as
well as that of the supplier and eventual disposition. Animal records should
be kept for a period of one year after the final disposition of the animal.
The cages in which animals are housed, prior to or during an experiment, should
be clearly marked indicating the sex and number of contained animals, the investigator
responsible for them and such special instructions as may be pertinent to their
care. Records, especially when used in conjunction with data processing equipment,
can facilitate facility management (Wasserman, Blumrick and Liddell, 1982; Rieger
and Beriault, 1983).
Use of room cards/boards on the doors of animal
rooms indicating the species, investigator(s) whose animals are being held and
any special notations that may be pertinent is a good practice.
People donating animals to research facilities
are required to sign a statement that they are the legal owner. This document
should include identification of the animal by the criteria previously noted,
and should specifically transfer ownership and disposal of the animal to the
institution. Animals (such as dogs, for which a system of national registry
exists) should always be checked for the presence of identifying markings.
C. CARE OF THE ANIMAL
1. Food
All experimental animals should receive palatable,
wholesome and nutritionally adequate food according to the requirements of the
species, unless the study requires otherwise. In certain experiments where small
quantities of chemical residues may influence results, certified diets with
documented analysis of contaminant pesticides, herbicides, etc., are available
from commercial manufacturers of laboratory animal diets.
a) Food Storage
Whenever possible, pasteurized or sterilized diets
obtained from reputable suppliers should be used. Proper storage of foods is
necessary to minimize the possibility of contamination, deterioration or spoilage.
Dry laboratory animal diets should be used within six months of the milling
date when stored in cool, dry, well-ventilated quarters. Irradiated diets kept
under the same conditions have approximately double the shelf life. Primate
and guinea pig diets should be used within three months of the milling date,
unless vitamin C is supplemented. To avoid problems from age deterioration,
the date of milling of each shipment should be obtained from the supplier (this
is usually marked in code on the bags). Bags should then be marked, put on plastic
or metal pallets or racks to keep them off the floor, and stored so that the
oldest will be used first. Stale shipments should not be accepted. Shelf life
will be appreciably enhanced if the storage area is maintained at a temperature
of <16C (60.8F) (Weihe, 1987). Canned foods can be safely stored for long
periods. Clean green vegetables suitable for human consumption may enhance the
diet; however, vegetable discards may prove sources of infection and should
be avoided.
Food used in microbe-controlled environments is
often autoclaved. Autoclaving decreases the concentrations of some vitamins
and antioxidants (Maerki, Rossbach and Leuenberger, 1989). However, autoclavable
diets are available which contain higher concentrations of heat-labile ingredients
to compensate for the losses induced by heat-sterilization. Shelf life may be
decreased, but need not be if the process is handled properly (Oller, Greenman
and Suber, 1985). Gamma irradiation is also used for diet sterilization (Halls
and Tallentire, 1978).
Diet in large quantities should not be stored
in animal holding rooms. Small quantities, sufficient for one or two days may
be kept in the room in covered, vermin-proof containers.
b) Special Considerations
All animals tend to reduce their food intake when
sick. Animals with a high metabolic rate, e.g., small rodents and those requiring
fairly frequent feedings of high protein diets (e.g., the cat), can become debilitated
very rapidly. In cases of anorexia in these species, oral intubation and force
feeding as well as intravenous therapy (cat) should be instituted without undue
delay. Restricted feeding for maintenance of adult animals is commonly practised
for some species and strains, such as rabbits. Animals on restricted food or
fluid intake for experimental purposes should be closely monitored for weight
loss, signs of dehydration, signs of stress and deterioration in health (McIntosh
and Staley, 1989). It should be noted that food and water restriction may have
a marked effect on the response of animals to toxic substances and other experimental
variables (Damon, Eidson, Hobbs et al. 1986). For some species, particularly
NHP, providing a variety of foods can be useful as a form of environmental enrichment.
Generally, food should not be scattered over the
bottom of the cage, where it may be contaminated or wasted. Exceptions to this
include provision of food to newly hatched birds and abnormal (handicapped)
animals, such as mice with muscular dystrophy.
2. Water
Drinking water should be available to animals
at all times, unless contra-indicated by the experimental protocol. Tap water,
even if from municipal water systems, is not sterile and quickly becomes contaminated
with even more bacteria after the bottle is placed on the cage (Tober-Meyer
and Bieniek, 1981). Monitoring water quality is an important aspect of any research
program, as water contamination and chemical composition can affect the health
of animals and the results of animal experiments.
Methods available to remove both microbial and
chemical contamination include acidification, chlorination, reverse osmosis,
ultrafiltration and ultraviolet (UV) light (Newell, 1980). Some of these methods
may alter immune function (Herman, White and Lang, 1982; Fidler, 1977) and growth
rates in experimental animals (Hall, White and Lang, 1980; Tober-Meyer, Bieniek
and Kupke, 1981). Regardless of whether or not the water supply is treated,
all water dispensing equipment should be thoroughly sanitized according to institutional
SOPs, and periodically monitored for bacterial contaminants.
A watering method unlikely to spread disease or
contaminate the water supply should be chosen. Water bottles should be transparent
so as to permit ready observation of cleanliness and water level; of a material
that will withstand sterilization, and of a wide mouth design to facilitate
cleaning. Water bottles should always be replaced with clean, freshly filled
ones, rather than by refilling the ones in use. Animals housed under freezing
conditions may require heated water bowls.
Automatic watering devices are economical to operate,
but if not properly designed, are difficult to disinfect properly and may lead
to cross-contamination (Malatesta and Schwartz, 1985). Recirculating systems
eliminate stagnation of water and help prevent buildup of microorganisms. The
correct pressure in the drinking valves prevents backflow of water into the
lines when animals drink from or play with the valve. Malfunction of automatic
watering systems can lead to drowning or drought; consequently, the system must
be routinely and thoroughly checked. Some animals need to be taught to use automatic
watering devices. Automatic watering devices are not recommended for guinea
pigs, unless they are habituated to them.
Most fish have a low tolerance for both copper
ions and chlorine. Their water supply, therefore, should either be dechlorinated
or obtained from an untreated source, and should not be brought into the aquarium
through copper piping.
3. Exercise
Experts disagree about the need for exercise in
laboratory animals. A judgement in such cases must thus be made by the laboratory
animal veterinarian in consultation with the investigator. Although many adult
animals do not seem to have a motivation to exercise per se, in the process
of satisfying their behavioural needs, they do get exercise (Fox, 1990). Exercise
requirements for animals should reflect species, age and environment. Research
information on the requirements of each species for exercise is limited and
varied, but continually increasing. Young animals of most species involve themselves
in much more play and exercise activity than adults. For some species, exercise
may not be required in adult animals for physiological health (Weihe, 1987;
Clark, 1990; Campbell, 1990). Several studies suggest that there are no beneficial
effects on behaviour, health or in enhancement of voluntary activity in the
laboratory-bred beagle from increasing the cage dimensions beyond the standard
76 cm x 76 cm x 76 cm (30" x 30" x 30") size, provision of half-hour daily exercise,
or from 1.22 m x 3.05 m (4' x 10') floor pen housing (Newton, 1972; Hite, Hanson,
Bohidar et al. 1977). Judgment should be based on the animal's breed,
temperament, physical condition, the conditions under which it has previously
been kept and the length of time it is to be confined. Animal cages must, however,
always be large enough to allow the innate normal behavioural and postural
adjustments (see Appendix I). There are many varied methods and programs
of exercise which are successfully used in dogs (Eckstein, Moran, Gomez et
al. 1987; Clark, 1990; Hughes and Campbell, 1990), including walking programs
using outside volunteers. Caged rats spontaneously exercise by playing with
cage mates and during feeding (Weihe, 1987) (see also Social and Behavioural
Requirements of Experimental Animals).
D. CARE OF THE FACILITY
1. Cleaning and Sanitation
Employees must be aware of proper cleaning and
disinfecting procedures and their importance in disease prevention (Small, 1984;
Harrison and Mahnke, 1991; Van Houton and Hayre, 1991). All cages, pens, racks,
aquaria, accessory equipment, etc., must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected
before reuse. Most of these items should be subject to regular (usually weekly)
cleaning during use. As a general rule, laboratory animals should be moved
to freshly cleaned cages at least once a week. Cleaning practices need to
be modified according to the species and housing system for domestic animals,
fowl, reptiles and aquatic animals. The effectiveness of detergents, disinfectants
and facility cleaning programs should be monitored and constant (Thibert, 1980).
The ability to clean and sanitize a facility is
greatly influenced by facility design and construction materials. The objective
of a sanitation program is to reduce the microbial contamination or "bioburden"
to a level that reduces the possibility of any cross-contamination (Harrison
and Mahnke, 1991). Proper sanitation will not compensate for the transfer of
infection by personnel. Cleaning and sanitation merely complement proper procedures
which minimize contamination (Thibert, 1980). Activities such as pressure spraying
and dumping bedding can aerosolize microorganisms allowing cross-contamination
if animals are present (Frost and Hamm Jr., 1990). Opening doors can alter the
airflow in a facility, enhancing the possibility of transfer of contaminants
(Keene and Sansone, 1984). Moveable equipment can transmit organisms between
areas. Therefore, such equipment should be dedicated to a particular room or
area.
Procedure rooms using animals from different sources
are a potential source of cross-contamination. Proper disinfection of surfaces
should be ensured after use.
Bedding in animal cages or pens should be changed
as often as necessary to keep the animal clean, dry, and relatively odour-free
and ammonia levels in the cage at appropriate levels. In rats, this is 25 ppm
(Schoeb, Davidson and Lindsey, 1982). Smaller laboratory animals require one
to three changes per week, depending on such variables as the sizes of the animals,
population density and type of caging and whether or not litters are being produced.
Larger species such as dogs, cats and NHP usually require at least a daily change.
Food containers should be easily cleaned and disinfected.
Animal cages are most efficiently cleaned and
sanitized with mechanical washing equipment operating at 83C (180F) or higher,
for a minimum of ten minutes. Cages should be carefully rinsed to remove all
traces of washing and disinfecting agents, as exposure to these may adversely
affect both the animal and the experimental results. All automatic washing equipment
should be subjected to regular maintenance to assure proper performance. Where
an automatic cagewasher is not available, use of a spray washer and disinfectant
are preferable to the dip tank and rinsing method. It should be noted that sodium
hypochlorite and iodophores are effective on most animal viruses; however, disinfectants
should be chosen according to the spectrum of viruses and organisms required
to be killed and the possibility of deactivation by the local environment. There
are references available to aid in identification of the appropriate disinfectants
(Block, 1983; Harrison and Mahnke, 1991; Orcutt, 1991). Chlorine dioxide sterilants/disinfectants
have become more recently available and are often used in facilities maintaining
SPF or immunosuppressed animals because of their rapid broad spectrum activity,
even in the presence of an organic load (Frost and Hamm Jr., 1990).
All chemicals should be used properly, according
to label directions. Detergents, disinfectants and pesticides may cause changes
in the experimental animal by inducing or inhibiting cellular enzyme activity
(Burek and Schwetz, 1980). This should be a consideration when conducting experiments
which may be adversely affected.
2. Waste Disposal
Dead animals, animal tissues and excreta, bedding,
unused food, etc., should be collected in leak-proof metal or plastic containers
with leak-proof, disposable liners and tight lids. Liners are essential for
animal tissues, carcasses, and radioactive or toxic waste. Infectious waste
should, ideally, be incinerated on the site. If the waste is to leave the facility
it should be sterilized (autoclaved) before removal. Gamma irradiation is a
relatively recent method of disinfection of waste products which may come into
more prominent use (Garcia, Brooks, Stewart et al. 1987).
Waste which cannot be rapidly disposed of should
be stored in a cold storage area provided for that purpose. Such areas must
be vermin-free, easily cleaned and disinfected as well as being physically separated
from other storage facilities. The waste storage area should be located so that
wastes need not be carried through other rooms of the facility.
Dead animals should be removed from cages as soon
as they are noticed. The laboratory animal veterinarian who should have been
immediately informed of sick animals, should also be informed of dead ones.
Dead animals should be properly identified, placed in disposable plastic bags
and taken to the postmortem area immediately upon discovery. In the postmortem
area they should be held under refrigeration for necropsy or for disposal in
accordance with the investigator's instructions. National guidelines as well
as local and provincial laws control waste disposal practices that could endanger
public health (HWC/MRC, 1990). Saskatchewan, Alberta and New Brunswick regulate
livestock management and manure disposal, and Ontario has a suggested Code of
Practice on the same subject. (Copies of these may be obtained from provincial
departments of Agriculture.)
Considerable forethought and extensive consultation
is advisable before installing an incineration facility for the disposal of
pathological waste.
3. Vermin Control
A properly constructed building should be vermin-proof,
but may not be free from vermin. Vermin enter on food, bedding, people and animals.
Insects and arthropods thus introduced, may act as the intermediate hosts of
certain parasites and may also mechanically transmit bacterial and other pathogens
(Hughes, Kassim, Gregory et al. 1989). Wild rodents may transmit a wide
variety of bacteria, viruses, and parasites to caged members of closely related
species (Levine and Lage, 1984). New facilities should be checked critically
for vermin before any animals are moved in.
Vermin should also be controlled in already-infested
older buildings. A control program will include the proper training of personnel,
good waste disposal, sealing or eliminating breeding sites, extermination through
pesticides or trapping, and the recovery of all escaped and/or wild animals.
It is important that pesticides be applied only under professional supervision.
Many pesticides are dangerous to humans, and may adversely affect the experimental
animal and the research (Bell, Farrell and Padgett, 1975). Any control program
that is initiated must extend throughout all areas of the facility, with special
attention to food and bedding storage. The practice of using a free-roaming
cat for the control of wild and escaped rodents is not acceptable except in
farm animal facilities, and only under close management.
If insect colonies are kept in or near an animal
care facility, there must be regular monitoring of the facility against infestation
from escapees. Such insect colonies should be kept behind a screened enclosure
or inside an escape-proof container. The use of insecticides must also be compatible
with these insect colonies.
4. Holiday and Emergency
Care
a) Weekend and Holiday Care of Laboratory Animals
is Essential
It should be recognized that changes in personnel
and feeding and cleaning schedules, as can occur during these periods, are known
to be stressful to routine-oriented animals (Beaver, 1981).
b) Animal Care is a Continuous and Daily Responsibility
This point should be emphasized in job descriptions
for animal care personnel and in union contracts. Basic animal care should be
categorized as an "essential service" and a clause to this effect should
be included in all collective agreements, and should not be subject to interruption
through strike action. Staff must be provided for weekends and holidays, and
skilled assistance must be available in the event of an emergency.
The names and telephone numbers of staff responsible
for the animals should be given to security personnel. Some institutions may
also choose to have contact telephone numbers posted prominently in the facility.
In either case, directions for contacting responsible animal care staff must
be made available in the facility. All the animal care staff should be informed
of their responsibilities in emergency situations.
The CCAC suggests use of the following:
Essential Services Provision
To be inserted near the Strikes and Lockouts clause:
Clause
"Designation of Employees to Care for Research
Animals
The parties agree that proper care* of all research
animals** will be maintained by the members of the bargaining unit in the event
of a strike or lockout in the course of this Agreement or its continuance.
At least seven days before the commencement of
a strike or lockout, the employer will designate and identify a number of employees
which it deems sufficient to provide for continuous proper care of the animals
during the strike or lockout. A list of the names will be delivered to the Union
and the parties agree to meet with a view to executing a formal agreement with
respect to the employees affected. Should the parties be unable to reach agreement
on the persons to be designated, the matter will be referred to the CCAC, for
final and binding resolution by the Council.
All persons so designated will be paid their regular
salary during the period of designation.
Due regard will be had for previously arranged
vacations and other matters and as far as possible the designated duties will
be dispersed among all appropriate employees equally. No other duties will be
assigned to these designated employees.
____________________
* Proper care implies provision
of appropriate temperatures, humidity, light cycles, ventilation, food, water
and cleaning as well as
exercise and nursing care
where appropriate.
** Research animals means any live
non-human vertebrate or invertebrate utilized in research, teaching and testing."
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