IV. FARM ANIMAL FACILITIES
AND ENVIRONMENT
These guidelines are intended for farm
animals used in agricultural research and teaching. Where agricultural
animal species serve as models for humans in biomedical research projects
and teaching demonstrations, they are to be kept in similar facilities
compatible with each animal's normal requirements and under conditions
that will minimize stress, bearing in mind the conditions required for
non-agricultural species used in similar experiments.
When farm animals are brought to the laboratory,
consideration must be given to the transition from the ambient outdoor
conditions (e.g., cold weather, photoperiod), so that the animals are given
as smooth a transition period as possible. Bringing animals in from the
cold will result in physiological changes (e.g., hyperventilation in sheep)
which will also be reflected in changes in their dietary requirements.
Husbandry procedures such as shearing sheep, the trimming of hoofs, may
also be of benefit to the animals at this time. The time required for the
animals to adapt to the laboratory's environment will vary.
The transition back to outdoor farm conditions
following laboratory confinement also requires careful planning, not only
with respect to the ambient climate, but also with respect to the regrouping
of the animals.
Comprehensive guidelines for environmental
enrichment, as well as for housing large animals in metabolism crates,
are found in the chapter on Social and Behavioural Requirements of Experimental
Animals.
The use of metabolism cages or crates necessarily
reduces the animal's social and behavioural activities. This practice should
not, therefore, be used merely for the purpose of convenient restraint,
but should be reserved for approved metabolic studies. Animals so housed
should be under close and expert observation throughout the period of the
study (see also Social and Behavioural Requirements of Experimental
Animals).
A. FACILITIES
Acceptable baseline information on facilities
and housing for farm animals for production purposes may be found in the
National Research Council (NRC)
Canadian Farm Building Code (NRC,
1990). Similarly, the various recommended Codes of Practice for livestock
and poultry published by Agriculture Canada (Agriculture Canada, 1771/E,
1984; 1821/E, 1988; 1757/E, 1989; 1853/E, 1990; 1870/E, 1991) are also
useful references. In addition, a revision of the Recommended Code of Practice
for the Care and Handling of Farm Animals--Pigs (1898/E) is now in press.
Where a new facility or extensive remodelling
of existing housing is contemplated, the plans should be discussed with
agricultural engineering experts (provincial departments of agriculture
and regional agricultural colleges). Detailed information is available
in the most recent edition of the Canadian Farm Building Code (NRC,
1990), and the Canadian Farm Building Handbook (Agriculture Canada,
1988).
The American Guide for the Care and
Use of Agricultural Animals in Agricultural Research and Teaching (Curtis,
1988), contains useful information. The Scientists Center for Animal Welfare
(SCAW) has also published a volume on farm animal well-being (Mench, Mayer
and Krulisch, 1992).
A number of articles on Farm Animal Housing
were compiled as a special feature by the Veterinary Record (Wathes,
Jones and Webster, 1983; Linklater and Watson, 1983; Sainsbury, 1983).
The British Veterinary Association's (BVA) Animal Welfare Foundation has
published guidelines for the detection and relief of pain in a number of
species of farm animals (Edwards, 1985; Gentle, 1985; Oldham, 1985; Silver,
1985). It has also published guidelines on transportation of farm species
(Gibson and Paterson, 1986).
Facility design and the nature of the primary
enclosures used for the housing of farm animals have a major impact on
their welfare. The conditions for production-oriented agricultural research
must often be simulated and sometimes intensified in commercial applications
of intensive husbandry practices in food animal production (Fraser, 1975).
With others, however, attempting to impose close confinement can introduce
a severe stress and "skew" research results.
Probably the most important factor in the
provision of appropriate animal care for farm animals is the attitude and
concern for animal well-being of the animal attendants and herdsmen.
Domestication is a continuing process,
and much of today's livestock and poultry production involves animals of
genetic strains that were selected for growth or reproduction in various
environments under varying degrees of control (Siegel, 1984).
Currently, no precise objective measures
exist which can be employed to evaluate the stress level of livestock production
systems. Due to problems inherent in biochemical monitoring, the physiological
parameters of stress cannot be completely relied upon (Freeman, 1971).
The suggestion that high productivity does not constitute a reliable indication
of a lack of stress may, in some special instance, be correct. However,
wide acceptance of the negative correlation between stress and productivity
has proven most useful and beneficial in that its acceptance by agricultural
producers has given rise to continuing efforts to upgrade environmental
conditions (Mann and Harvey, 1971; Wilson, 1971; Agriculture Canada, 1988).
The Report of the Technical Committee to Enquire into the Welfare of
Animals kept under Intensive Livestock Husbandry Systems in Britain
concluded that no one factor can be considered conclusive in assessing
well-being, and the fact that farm animals are producing normally should
be taken as no more than a guide in this regard (Brambell, 1965). The well-being
of farm animals probably will be assessed best by an integrated system
of indicators in four categories: 1) reproductive and productive performance;
2) pathological and immunological traits; 3) physiological and biochemical
characteristics; and 4) behavioural patterns (Curtis, 1988; Duncan, 1981;
Curtis, 1982; Smidt, 1983).
Cages and pens should not only serve to
confine the animal, but must also ensure its comfort and safety by permitting
normal postural and behavioural adjustments. Adequate ventilation, ready
access to food and water, and satisfactory viewing of the confined animal
are also mandatory. The Brambell Report in dealing with the implications
of modern technology on animal welfare, summarizes this concept by suggesting
that regardless of the system of management, five basic freedoms should
be respected for all farm animals; the freedom to get up, lie down, groom
normally, turn around and stretch its limbs (Brambell, 1965). Criticism
that these criteria are not always fully met, and that intensive livestock
systems restrict living space and in some cases drastically reduce freedom
of movement, is often justified. The equivocal point is, to what extent
the potential stress of confinement is counterbalanced by such things as
the period of the imposed stress, injury prevention and improved disease
control.
If slatted or partially slatted floors
are used, the slat width and spacing will vary with the species, but should
be such as to provide adequate support and minimize the risk of injury
while permitting free drainage of excrement (Smith and Robertson, 1971).
Slat material should be durable. The possibility that toxic gases may develop
from the liquid manure disposal system must always receive consideration,
as these may prove dangerous to both livestock and personnel.
Solid floor surfaces for farm animals should
be finished with materials and finishes that will minimize slippage and
thus the probability of injury and bruising. Epoxy resin floors if properly
keyed have been recommended for swine. The use of heavy rubber matting
(rubber cow mats) may prove useful in farrowing crates and for tethered
animals, as well as for stanchion-tied cattle. The arrangements for tethering
animals in relation to each other and to service areas within a facility
may have a considerable influence on the well-being, health and production
of the animals. For example, sows in tie stalls will generally thrive better
if they can see each other and are fed simultaneously.
B. SPECIFIC ENVIRONMENTAL
CONSIDERATIONS
Consideration of the facilities and
environmental requirements of cattle and poultry have been dealt with in
more depth than have those for other classes of livestock. These two species
are used as type species in order to exemplify many of the principles common
to the environmental requirements of other species of farm mammals and
birds.
1. Cattle
Conditions of housing for beef and dairy
cattle suitable to northern hemisphere conditions are well described in
several Canadian and U.S. publications (NRC, 1990; Agriculture Canada,
1988; Curtis, 1988; MWPS, 1987). It should be remembered that the importance
of good and intelligent management will increase proportionately with the
intensity of the animal production systems employed.
i) Temperature
Cattle are tolerant of a wide range of
ambient temperatures provided they are healthy, well-fed, and not exposed
to extremes of solar radiation, humidity or high wind speeds (Webster,
1983). Undesirable conditions of sanitation, mud, disease, parasites and
various insect pests reduce cattle tolerance to extremes of temperature.
Newborn calves are more vulnerable to extremes
and fluctuations of temperature than are older animals, with fluctuations
tending to be more critical than the absolute temperature. For dairy cows
and calves maintained in closed housing systems, the optimum temperature
is one close to 20oC with an acceptable range between 10 and
25oC (Sainsbury and Sainsbury, 1988).
Cattle maintained in free-stall and other
open housing systems frequently choose to stand in areas where the temperature
is near or below 0oC. Cattle maintained in cold environments
require more total feed which can readily meet the extra maintenance requirement
of about 1% per each 1oC reduction in effective environmental
temperature. Under these conditions, productivity is not lowered and cattle
do not appear to be uncomfortable.
When still air temperatures climb above
25oC, feed intake and performance of heavily fed cattle begin
to be affected and they may become physiologically stressed. Tolerance
to heat and to cold vary with genotype. In general, beef cattle appear
to be more winter hardy than dairy cattle. In fact, the lower critical
temperature of intensively fed and housed dairy cattle is probably only
about -7oC, while in beef cattle it can be -20oC.
Windbreaks in windy areas and overhead shelter in geographical areas subject
to cold rains, sleet and wet snow are highly desirable regardless of breed
or type of cattle.
ii) Ventilation and humidity
The objective of a ventilation system is
to provide the air exchange required to maintain environmental temperature
and humidity within the desired ranges and to remove methane and carbon
dioxide expelled from the rumen and lungs of cattle, ammonia from the decomposition
of feces and urine, dust from feed and bedding, and airborne microorganisms.
In winter, removal of water vapour is a
prime need in order to avoid condensation within the building. Adequate
insulation and, in some special cases, supplemental heat (e.g., calf housing
in certain locations) will also aid in maintenance of dry premises. Cold
weather ventilation rates should be sufficient to maintain relative humidity
below 80% and above 40% (Curtis, 1983). During cold weather, ventilation
in housing for neonatal animals should maintain acceptable air quality
without chilling the animals. In summer, ventilation aids in keeping ambient
temperature below the upper critical level of 25oC. Ideally,
the ventilation rate should be high enough to prevent indoor temperatures
from exceeding outdoor by more than 3oC when the atmospheric
temperature is above 25oC (Curtis, 1988).
A proper ventilation system should move
the right amount of air for moisture and pollutant removal in winter and
for heat, moisture and pollutant removal in summer. The system should provide
a relatively uniform temperature, as this is more important than the absolute
temperature. Similarly, the airflow that is established through the building
should be even, so that neither drafts nor dead air pockets are created.
Open housing systems should be built so
as to permit extra air movement in the summer and minimum drafts in winter.
Air current patterns are also of importance in winter in relation to snow
accumulation. Cattle should be able to feed, rest and exercise with minimum
exposure to cold wind and low temperature precipitation.
The indoor relative humidity range recommended
in the Canadian Farm Building Code is 25 to 75%. Levels of 50 to
55% humidity may be considered ideal and to provide a minimum of influence
on the physiological effects of other environmental parameters such as
temperature and ventilation. The comfort zone of animals is reduced (or
narrower) at both high and low temperatures under conditions of high humidity.
High humidity in closed housing at low temperatures leads to condensation;
the resulting dampness enhances the risk of disease transmission.
iii) Odours
Odours result from rumination by cattle,
from feces and urine, from silage, spoiled feeds, etc. Odours may taint
the milk and, if highly repugnant to herdsmen, may also result in the delivery
of poorer animal care. Odours often indicate the presence of gases which
can be harmful to cattle and to man. This is especially true with modern
liquid manure systems in which hydrogen sulphide (H2S), ammonia
(NH3) and methane (CH4) are produced. High concentrations
of H2S are lethal, and low to moderate levels of H2S
and NH3 are implicated in reduced animal health and performance.
High CH4 concentrations are explosive and at lower levels CH4
is a simple asphyxiant. CO2 results primarily from rumen fermentation
and exhalation by cattle. Except in extreme cases of poorly ventilated
housing, coupled with liquid manure agitation, CO2 accumulation
is not considered to be injurious to humans or animals. Occupational health
standards for gases are shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH STANDARDS
FOR GASES
|
Gas
|
TLVa ppm
|
Excursion
factorb
|
TWA
limitc ppm
|
|
H2S
|
10
|
2
|
20
|
|
NH3
|
25
|
1.5
|
37.5
|
|
CO2
|
5000
|
1.25
|
6250
|
a TLV (threshold
limit value) represents conditions under which it is believed that nearly
all workers may be repeatedly exposed for
an eight-hour
day and 40 hour work week without adverse effect.
b Excursion factor
defines the magnitude of the permissible excursion about the TLV.
c TWA (time-weighted
average) limit defines the maximum concentration permitted for a short
exposure period.
TLV x Excursion
Factor = TWA limit.
iv) Lighting
Light intensity must be adequate to maintain
a high level of husbandry. For instance, an intensity of 538 lux (50 fc)
is desirable in the area of the udder in a milking parlour so that the
operator can properly care for the cow's udder. Two hundred and fifteen
(215) lux (20 fc) are quite adequate in most general housing situations
with cattle. While approximately equal hours of light and dark have generally
been considered acceptable, some evidence suggests that longer hours of
light increases feed intake and cattle performance.
v) Bedding
Bedding materials used in stalls and pens
are chosen on the basis of availability, cost and suitability, as well
as the need. The housing system, and in particular the manure disposal
system, will largely dictate the bedding material if any, and how much
is appropriate. Straw or other appropriate materials are commonly used
with or without rubber matting, and on concrete, sand or wood bases. Comfort
and cleanliness of animals is dependent not only on amount and type of
bedding, but also on animal stocking density, type of shelter, temperature
and humidity levels. In open housing under cold conditions, loose straw
is very helpful in minimizing heat loss from cattle, and a straw-manure
base sufficient to allow for fermentation can provide additional heat.
Under conditions in which cattle consume significant amounts of bedding,
freedom from toxic compounds in the bedding is critical.
vi) Population density
Conditions for housing of beef and dairy
cattle are well described in the
Canadian Farm Building Handbook
(Agriculture Canada, 1988). Space requirements vary depending on size and
type of animal, type of shelter, whether tied or loose, numbers of animals
per group, and level of management. As more intensive animal agriculture
is practised, quality of management must improve accordingly.
2. Sheep
General information on the facility requirements
and environmental conditions suitable to the raising and maintenance of
sheep in Canada is available in a number of books and monographs (Agriculture
Canada, 1988; NRC, 1990; Curtis, 1988; Ensminger and Parker, 1986).
i) Temperature
The comfort zone for the various classes
of sheep has been reported as follows: ewes and rams 7-24oC;
feeder lambs 5-21oC; newly born lambs - until dry 24-27oC,
which may be provided by heat lamps (Ensminger and Parker, 1986). While
these are stated to be the comfort zones, sheep will not suffer in temperatures
below -18oC if they are in fleece and the humidity is low.
ii) Ventilation
The requirements vary widely due to geographic
location. During the winter, the recommended ventilating capacity of buildings
housing sheep is 0.6-0.7 m3/min for each ewe and 0.3 m3/min
for each lamb. In summer the ventilating system should provide 1.1-1.4
m3/min per ewe and 0.65 m3/min per lamb (Ensminger
and Parker, 1986).
Preferred relative humidity is considered
to be around 60%; however, a range from 50% to 75% is acceptable (Ensminger
and Parker, 1986).
iii) Lighting
There are no specific light requirements
cited for sheep. Where windows equate to 3 to 5% or more of the floor area,
these will provide sufficient natural light. Photoperiod may need to be
regulated for the purpose of controlling the onset of estrus.
Although natural light is normally sufficient
for sheep in most situations, supplemental lighting should be provided
during lambing periods.
iv) Bedding
Straw is the most common bedding material
used. Some modern units use a liquid manure system with floors of expanded
metal, wire or slats and no bedding. Providing that space allocation is
correct, these systems are acceptable.
v) Population density
Table 2 taken from the 1988 edition of
the Canadian Farm Building Handbook (Agriculture Canada, 1988) gives
the accepted detail for sheep accommodation. The space allocation cited
may be considered generous from the viewpoint of practical commercial
sheep raising, but acceptable for research and teaching animals.
Generally the number of animals per pen
should not greatly exceed 100 pregnant ewes or 50 ewes with lambs or 500
feeder lambs.
TABLE 2 ACCOMMODATION FOR SHEEP
|
ACCOMMODATION
|
EWES AND RAMS
|
FEEDER LAMBS
|
Feed lot (m2/head)
hard surfaced
soil1 |
1.4
6.5
|
0.6
2.8
|
Open-front shed floor area
(m2)
Pregnant ewe
Dry ewe
Ceiling height minimum (m) |
1.4
0.93
2.7
|
0.6
2.7
|
Slotted floors (m2/head)2
% floor area slotted
slot width (mm)
slat width |
0.65
100
19
50-75
|
0.4
100
16
50-75
|
Lambing pen, not slotted (m,
minimum)
Claiming pen only
Lambing and claiming pen |
1.2 x 1.2
1.2 x 1.5
|
|
Feed rack, length per head
(mm)
Group feeding
Self-feeding
Height at throat (mm)
Small breeds
Large breeds |
400
150
300
375
|
300
100
250
300
|
Feed storage
Hay (kg/day per head)
Small breeds
Large breeds
Grain (kg/day per head)
(maintenance)
(finishing) |
1.4
2.3
0.15
|
0.9
0.23
0.45-1.13
|
| Bedding storage (kg/day per
head) |
0.34
|
0.11
|
| Water surface area (m2/40
head) |
0.1
|
0.1
|
1 Soil-surfaced
feed lots should be used only where annual precipitation is less than 500
mm. A paved strip next to the feed bunk
should
be at least 1.8 m wide, or as wide as the tractor used for cleaning. The
strip should slope 1:25 away from the feed bunk.
2 An alternative
to slotted floors, for ewes, rams or lambs is 25 x 50 mm, 4 mm-gauge expanded
and lattened metal mesh.
Expanded
metal mesh floors may be covered with a solid panel to retain bedding for
lambing.
3. Swine
Detailed information and guidelines for
swine housing may be found in the
Canadian Farm Building Handbook
(Agriculture Canada, 1988). The Veterinary Infectious Disease Organization
has published three booklets on Farrowing Barn Design and Management,
Swine
Nursery Design, and Feeder Barn Design and Management, designed
to provide swine producers with current information on modern building
design and operation (VIDO, 1986, 1987).
The internal surfaces of all swine houses
and equipment contained therein should be constructed of smooth, non-porous
materials which can be readily and effectively cleaned and disinfected.
Pen dividers and feeders should be free of sharp edges or projections which
might cause injury to the animals. Passageway and pen floors should be
effectively drained. All floors, whether solid, slatted, or wire mesh,
should provide adequate footing and be non-injurious to the pigs.
It is not feasible to state specific values
for such environmental parameters as temperature, humidity and ventilation
that are meaningful for all classes of swine in all possible research and
teaching situations. The precise requirements will vary considerably with
age, type of housing, density of population, etc., and the ranges cited
in most instances refer to the upper and lower limits of generally accepted
comfort zones.
i) Temperature
With the possible exception of the neonatal
and nursing piglets, swine are extremely adaptable and comfortable over
a wide range of climatic conditions, if they are provided with the proper
facilities to conserve or dissipate body heat. Pole barns or outside huts
can be comfortable even in extremely cold weather, if the unit has a sufficient
population and is provided with adequate and appropriate bedding for the
pigs to create a comfortable microenvironment. Animals with access to outside
runs or paddocks in hot weather should have a shaded, preferably damp,
area so they can stretch out on the ground and dissipate body heat by conduction.
Total confinement, on concrete or slats, may interfere with conductive
heat transfer so the environmental support systems must be adequate to
maintain a satisfactory comfort zone through all seasons.
For adults and most growing pigs (>30 kg)
the comfort zone range is about 15-25oC (Curtis, 1988). The
farrowing facility presents a special concern because the environmental
requirements for the sow, and the newborn piglet are drastically different.
For the comfort of the sow a temperature of 15-26oC should be
maintained, whilst the creep area should be dry, draft-free and provide
a temperature of from 26-32oC at all times for the newborn piglets
(Curtis, 1988).
ii) Ventilation and humidity
Adult and growing pigs will thrive at a
relative humidity within the range of 40-80% (Curtis, 1988). Ventilation
rates in winter should be sufficient to control moisture. In summer the
airflow rates required to remove heat produced by the animals are 15-20
X higher than the rates required for moisture control (VIDO, 1987). Metal
bars or wire mesh partitions between individual pens are preferable to
solid structures as they facilitate air movement at the level of the animal.
iii) Lighting
Photoperiod has a definite effect on the
age at which sexual maturity is achieved and may also influence growth
rate and feed efficiency (Maybry, Jones and Seerley, 1983), although Berger,
Mahone, Svoboda et al. (1980) suggest that no particular photoperiod
is necessary for growing pigs. From the viewpoint of good animal care,
the light intensity should be such that animals in all areas of the facility
can be observed clearly at all times.
iv) Noise and odours
Some noise and odour will inevitably be
present in any practical swine unit. Odours may be minimized by regular
efficient cleaning and adequate ventilation. Noise levels can be held down
by ensuring that mechanical equipment operates relatively quietly and by
minimizing procedures which disturb the animals.
v) Bedding
Where swine are held for relatively short
periods in small units, straw or other appropriate materials may be used.
In large units, with automated cleaning and manure handling, it is customary
to house pigs without bedding. Where pigs are maintained in pole barns
or outside huts, deep straw bedding should be provided.
vi) Population density
Young pigs up to 10 or 12 weeks of age
get along very well, and substantial numbers can be kept together in a
single pen (Curtis, 1988). As the animals grow older, aggressive behaviour
develops and fighting or bullying will occur, particularly in larger groups.
Generally, group size should be kept to ten or less for mature sows and
animals in the late growing phase (Sainsbury and Sainsbury, 1988). With
electronic feeding stations, larger groups may be more appropriate. Whenever
groups of sows are first established, some fighting will take place for
the first few days. The belligerent interactions between individuals within
the group should subside as the social hierarchy is established; however,
it is difficult to add new animals to previously established groups. If
the grouped pigs are limit-fed, it is essential that sufficient feeder
space be provided so that all animals can eat at the same time.
When adult pigs are confined to stalls,
the stall should always be long enough to allow the pig to lie fully relaxed
without its head or nose touching the feeder or front of stall. The stall
must also be wide enough to allow the animal to lie fully relaxed on its
side with its feet and legs extended. A stall width of 0.65 m will usually
satisfy this requirement.
Although not recommended by the Canadian
Council on Animal Care (CCAC), if a tie stall is to be used, extreme care
must be taken with regard to the design of the collar or belt utilized
and the tethered pig(s) must be closely monitored when first restrained.
If any abrasions occur in the region of the collar or belt the animal must
be released immediately. As a general rule, the tie system should not
be used unless the animal has been acclimatized to it at an early age.
Where
slatted or partially slatted floors are used, care must be exercised to
insure that slot width is such that no portion of the pig's hoof or leg
will pass through. Particular attention must be paid to the floor structure
when dealing with newborn piglets. Tables 3 and 4 are pen floor space allowances
for growing pigs and replacement gilts and sows which will be included
in a forthcoming Recommended Code of Practice for the Care and Handling
of Farm Animals--Pigs (Agriculture Canada, 1898/E in press).
TABLE 3 RECOMMENDED PEN FLOOR SPACE ALLOWANCES
FOR GROWING PIGS BASED ON BODY WEIGHT.667
|
Body Weight
|
Fully Slatted
(0.035*BW.667)++
|
Partial Slats
(0.039*BW.667)
|
Solid Bedded
(0.045*BW.667)
|
|
kg
|
(lbs)
|
m2
|
(ft2)
|
m2
|
(ft2)
|
m2
|
(ft2)
|
| 10 |
22
|
0.16
|
(1.7)
|
0.18
|
(1.9)
|
0.21
|
(2.2)
|
| 20 |
44
|
0.26
|
(2.8)
|
0.29
|
(3.1)
|
0.33
|
(3.5)
|
| 50 |
110
|
0.48
|
(5.2)
|
0.53
|
(5.7)
|
0.61
|
(6.6)
|
| 75 |
165
|
0.62
|
(6.7)
|
0.70
|
(7.5)
|
0.80
|
(8.6)
|
| 90 |
198
|
0.70
|
(7.5)
|
0.78
|
(8.4)
|
0.91
|
(9.7)
|
| 100 |
220
|
0.76
|
(8.2)
|
0.85
|
(9.1)
|
0.97
|
(10.4)
|
| 110 |
242
|
0.81
|
(8.7)
|
0.90
|
(9.7)
|
1.03
|
(11.1)
|
++For calculations; body weight
(BW) is in kg, area in m2.
TABLE 4 RECOMMENDED PEN FLOOR SPACE ALLOWANCES
FOR REPLACEMENT GILTS AND SOWS
|
Body Weight
|
Partial Slats
(0.054*BW.667)++
|
Solid Bedded
(0.059*BW.667)
|
|
kg
|
(lb)
|
m2
|
(ft2)
|
m2
|
(ft2)
|
| 100-150 |
(220-330)
|
1.5
|
(16)
|
1.7
|
(18)
|
| 150-200 |
(330-440)
|
1.8
|
(19)
|
2.0
|
(22)
|
| 200-250 |
(440-550)
|
2.1
|
(23)
|
2.3
|
(25)
|
| >250 |
(>550)
|
2.3
|
(25)
|
2.6
|
(28)
|
++For calculations; body weight
(BW) is in kg, area in m2.
4. Horses
The basic conditions for housing and maintaining
a proper environment for horses are outlined in the Consortium Guide
(Curtis, 1988) and also in the Horse Housing and Equipment Handbooks
(MWPS, 1986). The Canadian Farm Building Handbook (Agriculture Canada,
1988) deals specifically with housing for riding horses.
A bright, airy stable with access to an
exercise paddock is desirable in housing horses in order to maintain top
condition, muscle tone and health. The housing area should allow for adequate
space within its alleyways to permit the safe movement of horses and attendants.
Stall construction should preferably be
of hardwood at least 3.75 cm thick. Doors and partitions should be metal
faced, particularly along their top edges, to discourage "cribbing." There
should be no protuberances which might be injurious to the animals. Stall
walls should be of sufficient height to prevent interference with adjacent
animals. It is important that doors be of adequate width (1.25 m) and height
(2.25 m) to permit the easy movement of horses, without risk of injury.
Ceilings and overhead supporting beams should also be of sufficient height,
preferably 3 m, to permit the horse to assume a normal posture and to guard
against possible head injury.
Floors should have durable, non-slip surfaces.
Roughened concrete is satisfactory; wood flooring in the standing stall
is often used; packed earth may, in some instances, be acceptable in box
stalls. Under institutional and laboratory conditions, a room or area separate
from the stable area should be provided to perform special procedures (e.g.,
the collection of large quantities of blood, etc.).
i) Temperature
Horses can tolerate low temperatures provided
there is adequate shelter from extremes of wind, rain and snow. Similarly,
quite high temperatures can be tolerated provided adequate shade is available
to the free-ranging animal and that appropriate ventilation and humidity
are provided in the stable. An abundant supply of fresh, potable water
should be available at all times, and is particularly important in hot
weather. When housed in a dry draft-free environment, horses can also tolerate
a wide range of environmental temperatures (-7 to 29oC). However,
the optimum appears to lie between 10 and 15oC (Ensminger, 1969).
The relative humidity in horse quarters should range between 50-80% (Curtis,
1988).
ii) Ventilation
Ventilation rate capacity should be at
least 0.7 m3/min. per 450 kg of horse at temperatures of -18
to -7oC and 2.8 m3/min. per 450 kg of horse at temperatures
of -1 to 10oC (MWPS, 1987). The capacity will need to be increased
during hot weather.
iii) Lighting
The level of lighting in a horse barn should
allow for adequate examination of animals and bedding. Total darkness should
be avoided. A light source should be present at night. Illumination of
at least 200 lux is recommended for alleys, handling and feeding areas
(Currence and McFate, 1984). One 100 W incandescent lamp per 8 m of floor
or each box stall will produce the required light level (MWPS, 1987).
iv) Bedding
Sufficient bedding should be provided in
the form of straw, wood shavings or other suitable material. Adequate floor
drainage must be assured in both the box and standing stall to guard against
foot problems and unnecessary soiling of the animal.
Manure and soiled bedding should be removed
daily to keep horses clean and dry, and the environment free of dust and
odours (Curtis, 1988). The animal should not have access to the manure
storage area due to the high risk of parasite infestation from this source.
Regular grooming is strongly advocated
for members of this species, particularly if housed in tie stalls with
limited freedom of movement.
v) Population density
Ideally juvenile and mature horses should
be housed in individual box stalls of at least 3.5 m x 3.5 m, with access
to an exercise paddock of 10.0 m x 27.50 m or larger. Horses may be quite
satisfactorily maintained in standing stalls providing there is good separation
between each animal and regular access to an exercise paddock. Subsequent
to weaning, it is desirable that each animal have a separate stall. In
the exercise paddock, separation by age and compatibility should be maintained.
5. Poultry
It is not feasible in the space of a few
pages to deal in detail with the housing, feeding and management of poultry.
More detailed information may be found in the literature (Curtis, 1988;
Agriculture Canada, 1988; Moreng and Evans, 1985; North and Bell, 1990).
a) Chicks
In experimental studies, chicks are either
brooded and reared in floor pens or in batteries. Buildings that house
such facilities should be designed and operated in such a manner as to
provide maximum comfort for the birds and minimum risk of disease transmission.
It is customary for such buildings to have
concrete floors equipped with floor drains and walls of sealed concrete
block or sealed
plywood to facilitate easy cleaning and disinfection.
Insulation of walls and ceilings is essential as is adequate ventilation.
i) Temperature
Initial brooding temperature should be
35oC as measured on a level with the backs of the chicks. As
the birds age, the brooding temperature should be reduced at the rate of
about 2.5oC per week. By the time the birds are 5-6 weeks old,
the house temperature should be down to 18 to 21oC (Curtis,
1988). A thermometer alone, however, is a poor tool for ensuring chick
comfort. The chicks themselves should also be the indicators (North and
Bell, 1990).
ii) Ventilation
All poultry buildings must be adequately
ventilated either naturally or by forced air. In most installations, the
minimum ventilation rate in summer should be about 12 air changes per hour.
Such ventilation rates are usually adequate to keep ammonia levels in the
buildings down to acceptable levels. Levels of ammonia in poultry houses
should not exceed 25 ppm. Higher levels are likely to prove detrimental
to the birds and uncomfortable for attendants.
iii) Lighting
Lighting systems vary widely; however,
artificial light controlled by a time clock should always be employed.
Chicks brooded in batteries are usually subjected to about 35 lux (3.5
fc) of white light on a continuous basis for the first four days after
hatching. Broiler chicks brooded in floor pens should receive 35 lux of
illumination at the floor for the first 48 hours after hatching, with a
light cycle lasting 23 hours, the dark cycle one hour. A 23-hour program
is preferable to 24 hours of light, because it acquaints the flock with
periods of darkness. This is very bright illumination; however, it is essential
that chicks learn to drink and eat as soon as possible. After the first
two days, light intensity should be reduced to about 10 lux (1 fc) at floor
level (North and Bell, 1990). Replacement stock are generally lighted like
broiler chicks until about six weeks of age when a restricted lighting
schedule is introduced. Such schedules, over a period of time, reduce the
hours of light to about eight hours per day.
iv) Bedding
Many different types of litter have been
used successfully in floor pens. Preference in most parts of Canada is
for wheat straw or wood shavings. In general, visual cleanliness of litter
is considered of less importance than dryness; spillage of water must be
minimized by using suitable waterers. A sufficient number of air changes
must be provided in the building to remove the moisture-laden air from
the pens; at the same time, care must be taken not to reduce the moisture
level to the point where a dust problem is created.
v) Food and water
A good supply of fresh, clean water must
be provided and maintained at all times. Feeders of many different types
(troughs, hanging feeders and mechanical feeders) have all been used successfully.
Where practical, they should be provided with reels or grills to prevent
wastage and fouling of the feed by the birds. Feeders should be of a type
and size suitable for the age (size) of the birds. Sufficient feeder space
must be provided to permit all of the birds to eat at one time.
vi) Population density
Some guidelines for space requirements
for chickens will be found in Table 5. The recommended allowances should
be considered as "rules of thumb" rather than as absolute minimum allowances.
TABLE 5 GUIDELINES FOR MINIMUM SPACE REQUIREMENTS
FOR POULTRY
|
Floor area/bird
cm2
|
Brooding and Growing Period
Floor pen housing
0-6 weeks
>6 weeks
Cage housingc
Leghorn-type/Medium-size
0-6 weeks
6-12 weeks
12-20 weeks |
64a-1116b
742a-2786b
97/155
194/310
290/348
|
Laying Period
Floor pen housing on litter
Leghorn-type
Medium-size
Cage housing
Leghorn-type
Medium-size |
1625
1858
387
452
|
Breeding flocks - males
and females
Floor pen housing on litter |
1393a-2786d
|
| Feeder space - Length/bird
cm. |
10
|
| Nests - per 100 layers |
25
|
Adapted from Curtis (1988) and
North and Bell (1990)
a Mini-Leghorn
pullets
b Meat-type cockerels
c Cages should
allow birds to stand erect
d Meat-type
b) Laying and Breeding Hens
In general, the type of building required
for housing laying and breeding chickens is similar to that required for
floor brooding of chickens; however, the internal design and equipment
required are different. Houses for layers and breeders maintained on floors
are usually equipped with dropping pits or dropping boards, nests, appropriate
troughs or hanging feeders, and automatic waterers.
In order to prevent cannibalism, the birds
are often beak-trimmed with an electric beak trimmer. Heavily beak-trimmed
birds may suffer a severe setback in growth and in subsequent performance
in the laying house. Excessive trimming should, therefore, always be avoided
both on humane and economic grounds.
i) Ventilation
Ventilation rates required in summer and
winter in houses for laying and breeding chickens are fairly similar to
those required in houses for rearing replacement stock. In winter, the
system must remove moisture build up whilst maintaining an optimum house
temperature between 18 and 24oC. In the summer, the ventilation
system should maintain the house temperature below 27oC. At
temperatures above 27oC laying pullets begin to suffer and performance
diminishes (North and Bell, 1990).
ii) Lighting
Artificial light, controlled by a time
clock, must be provided to layers for optimal production. It is usual to
provide 14 hours of white light per day at a light intensity of 10 lux
(1 fc) at the feeders and waterers (North and Bell, 1990).
iii) Bedding
The floors are usually covered with litter
of straw or shavings. Occasionally, such houses have floors of 2.5 cm x
5 cm mesh, heavy gauge, electrically welded wire which obviates the need
for litter.
Houses suitable for maintaining layers
in cages usually have single or multiple cages arranged in rows about 76
cm apart. Stair-step or single-deck type cages, with mechanical cleaning
arrangements underneath are perhaps the most popular cages, since removal
of droppings is made easier with such cages than with multiple-deck cages.
iv) Food and water
Feeds appropriate to the stage and level
of production are readily available commercially. Food may be supplied
in mash or pelleted form. Laying or breeding rations usually contain about
16% protein. Water is generally supplied by automatic waterers. Both trough
and large cup waterers have been found satisfactory for layers in floor
pens while trough, drip and small cup waterers have been found suitable
for layers in batteries.
v) Population density
Some guidelines for space requirements
for hens will be found in Table 5.
c) Commercial vs. Experimental Conditions
The housing, feeding and management of
chickens have been treated above as in commercial practice. The principal
difference between the commercial situation and the experimental situation
is that in the latter, many different treatments and replications are involved
which often may necessitate the use of many small floor pens or many small
battery groups. These must be group- or individually-fed with individual
or group data being collected from each. Production-oriented agricultural
research, in order to be relevant, will most often require an approximation
of good commercial management and housing practices.
Where chickens are utilized as a bioassay
tool in biomedical and behavioural research, the environmental conditions
given above for chicks and mature birds should be considered as constituting
minimal acceptable standards. When chickens must be introduced into a laboratory
animal facility in which poultry are not usually accommodated, it is necessary
to provide appropriate caging. In these circumstances, advice should be
sought from someone knowledgeable in poultry science and husbandry as well
as laboratory animal science to assure that such considerations as sufficient
head room, feeder space and proper flooring are satisfactorily met. Care
should also be taken to ensure that feeders and waterers (particularly
where fountains and open cups are used) are located so as to avoid becoming
fouled with feces or clogged with bedding.
C. PEST CONTROL
Programs should be in place to control
infestation by vermin (flies, mosquitoes, fleas, lice, ticks, rodents,
skunks and birds). The most effective control is by preventing entry by
the appropriate screening of openings and sealing cracks, maintaining the
integrity of all surfaces, and eliminating vermin breeding sites. Pesticides
should only be used judiciously and when necessary and where the risk to
animals and the experimental process is minimal.
Cats are sometimes used for rodent and
bird control and if so they should receive appropriate veterinary care
including complete inoculation against the common feline diseases, including
rabies.
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